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Convert an FAA certificate to a Canadian private pilot license

Pre flight check on a Cesna 172

A little while ago someone asked us how to convert an FAA certificate to a Canadian Private pilot license.

Applicants are required to write a conversion examination consisting of several topics that have mainly to do with Canadian air law. Regulations should be reviewed as they apply to airplanes in VFR operations.  These are found in the table below.

CARS – are Canadian Aviation Regulations and found on Transport Canada’s website. The AIM is the Aeronautical information Manual and may also be found on the TC website, and you can download a a pdf copy of the publication.

Below are the specific subjects that need to be studied for the exam.

CARs Part I, Subpart 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
101.01 – Interpretation (definitions as needed)
CARs Part IV, Subpart 1 FLIGHT CREW PERMITS, LICENCES AND RATINGS
401.05 – Recency Requirements
401.26 – Private Pilot Licence, Aeroplanes – Privileges
CARs Part IV, Subpart 4 MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS
404.04 – Issuance, Renewal, Validity Period and Extension of a Medical Certificate
CARs Part VI, Subpart 1 AIRSPACE
Division I – Airspace Structure, Classification and Use
Division II – Aircraft Operating Restrictions and Hazards to Aviation Safety
CARs Part VI, Subpart 2 OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES
Division I – General
Division II – Operational and Emergency Equipment requirements
Division III – Flight Preparation, Flight Plans and Flight Itineraries
Division IV – Pre-Flight and Fuel Requirements
Division V – Operations at or in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome
Division VI – Visual Flight Rules
Division VIII – Radiocommunications
Division IX – Emergency Communications and Security
CARs Part VI, Subpart 5 AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS
Division I – Aircraft Requirements – General
Division II – Aircraft Equipment Requirements
TC AIM – GEN GENERAL
1.0  – General Information
3.0 – Transportation Safety Board of Canada
TC AIM – AGA AERODROMES
7.19 – Aerodrome Lightning – Aircraft Radio Control of Aerodrome Lightning (ARCAL)
TC AIM – COM COMMUNICATIONS
5.15 – Radio Communications – Phone Use During Radio Communication Failure
TC AIM – RAC RULES OF THE AIR AND AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES
2.0  – Airspace – Requirements and Procedures
3.6 – Flight Planning – Flight Plans and Flight Itineraries (Opening)
3.12 – Closing
4.0 – Airport Operations
5.0 – VFR En Route Procedures
TC AIM – SAR SEARCH AND RESCUE
3.9 – Emergency Locator Transmitter – Schedule of Requirements
TC AIM – MAP AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS
2.0  – Aeronautical Information – VFR
6.0 – Aeronautical Information Circulars – General
TC AIM – LRA LICENSING, REGISTRATION AND AIRWORTHINESS
3.9 – Pilot Licensing – Recency Requirements
TC AIM – AIR AIRMANSHIP
1.6 – General Information – Canadian Runway Friction Index
2.12 – Flight Operations – Flight Operations in Winter
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Air law – some basics

Studying air law requires a large double-double

I am currently studying air law.  Air law is a big topic and will take some time to cover.  It’s hard to present all this information, so I thought I’d review a few of the very basics.

Material for air law is found in the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARS). CARS is divided into two parts, the Regulations, which provide the rules, and the Standards, which give us guidance on how to apply the rules.  There are eight parts, or subject areas:

Part 1   General Provisions

Part 2   Aircraft Identification and Registration

Part 3   Aerodromes and Airports

Part 4   Personnel Licensing and Training

Part 5   Airworthiness

Part 6   General Operating and Flight Rules

Part 7   Commercial Air Services

Part 8   Air Navigation Services

Canadian Airspace - Image from Transport Canada (tc.gc.ca)
Canadian Airspace – Image from Transport Canada (tc.gc.ca)

In Canada, airspace is divided into Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA) and Southern Domestic Airspace (SDA). The NDA runs in close proximity to the earth’s pole, and the lines of force dip towards the pole make the compass reading unreliable, because the compass lies in a horizontal plane.  Therefore, aircraft operating in this zone must fly according to true track calculations. Runway numbering is oriented to and surface winds are provided in degrees true. At night or IFR aircraft must be equipped with a gyroscopic direction indicator.

Runway numbering

In SDA, aircraft operate according to their magnetic track.  Runways are numbered according to their magnetic track, and surface winds are also reported in degrees magnetic. Runway markings are numbered to the nearest 10 degree increment, and the last digit is dropped. For example, runway with the heading 163 will be abbreviated 16.

Altimeter Regions

Canada is also divided into an altimeter setting region and a standard pressure region. The limits of the altimeter setting region are the same as for the SDA and vertically below FL180 (flight level 18,000 feet).  In this region, a pilot must set their altimeter to the current altimeter reading for the departing airport and airports along the flight.  The standard pressure region encompasses the NDA and anywhere above FL180.   The altimeter is set to standard sea level pressure (29.92″ Hg). For takeoff and climb for an airport in this region, altimeter should be set to the setting for that particular airport, and reset to standard pressure upon reaching cruising altitude.  For descent and landing, the altimeter setting for that particular airport should be set.

Uncontrolled Airspace

This consists of airspace where there is no air traffic control (ATC).  Because of this, aircraft in close proximity may present a hazard since to monitoring is given, hence pilots are required to monitor the frequency 126.7 continuously broadcast their location, altitude and intention.

Controlled Airspace

Here ATC is provided and consists of high level (above FL180) and low level airspace (below FL180).

High Level Airspace

All airspace above 18,000. This is divided into three regions: (1) Southern Control Area (SCA): same boundaries as SDA, within this area, all traffic (above 18,000 feet) is controlled, the (2) Northern Control Area (NCA) which extends from the northern limits of the SCA to about 72 degrees latitude, and all traffic above FL230 is controlled, and the Arctic Control Area (ACA) which extends from the boundary of the NCA to the North Pole. It controls all the airspace above FL270.

High level airspace includes high level airways which are prescribed tracks between specific navigation aids where ATC is provided, and high level air routes which are the same as airways but no ATC is provided.

 Low Level Airspace

This is Canadian Domestic Airspace below 18,000 feet ASL, not all of which is controlled. Controlled low level airspace includes

Low level airways: routes which aircraft can navigate by following a non directional beacon, and VHF/UHF airways spaced approximately 100 miles apart along the airway.  The basic width is 4 nautical miles on each side.  Low Frequency/Medium frequency airways (LF/MF) are navigated with reference to signals from low frequency transmitters. The width is 4.34 nautical miles on each side.  An airway has it’s base at 2,200 AGL and extends up to the base of the overlying high level airspace.

Control Area Extensions (CAE): are additional control zones established at some busy airports within controlled airspace to handle IFR traffic.  They extend from 2,200 to 18,000 ‘ AGL.

Control Zones: Designated around certain aerodromes to monitor IFR traffic and facilitate the movement of IFR and VFR traffic.  The upper limit is usually 3000′ AGL. They can be classified as B,C,D or E depending on the classification of surrounding airspace. Most with terminal control have a 7 nautical mile radius, others 5, and a few only 3.

Canadian Terminal Control Area (TCA) Airspace. Figure from Transport Canada (tc.gc.ca)
Canadian Terminal Control Area (TCA) Airspace. Figure from Transport Canada (tc.gc.ca)

Terminal Control Areas (TCU): These are established at airports with heavy traffic to provide IFR service to aircraft. They may be A, B, C, D or E and usually extend into high level airspace.  The TCU takes the shape on an inverted wedding cake.  The limits are specified on the figure to the left.

Next, I’ll review the Classification of Canadian Airspace – airspace classes, A, B, C, D, E, F and G.  Read more air law here.

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The high key – low key landing procedure

The high key - low key landing procedure. Image courtesy of Transport Canada (Flight Training Manual)

This procedure is used to plan a forced approach in the event of an engine failure.

When we have an engine out emergency, our goal is the extend our glide as far as we can. The longer we can glide, the more time we have to evaluate our landing options and plan an approach.

Once we have established our glide and picked our field, we want to start turning into this field and planning an approach as fast as possible.  This may mean we are turning towards our field when planning which way we are going to land,  land into the wind if possible and avoid obstacles.  We are also likely doing our engine restart checks as we do this turn. This is explained in detail in the forced landing article.

Calgary VFR Navigation Chart
Calgary VFR Navigation Chart

We should note our altitude above ground level. This means we should note the altitude on our map. In the area where I am flying is near Cremona, Alberta, the elevation is around 4000 feet.  When I start the procedure, I am at 6000 feet.  I have 2000 feet of altitude to plan my approach and landing.  Of course this is just a simulation, so when I am up with my instructor we do get within a few hundred feet of the ground, but when  practice on my own I don’t go below 500 feet above ground, which is 4500 feet.

The procedure calls to start the high key abeam the threshold where we have chosen our landing spot. The altitude we should be above this threshold is calculated from whatever gives us a two-minute turn to our left in our aircraft and our rate of descent. The turn and bank coordinator and vertical speed indicator gives us this information.  In the Cessna 172, the two-minute turn gives us approximately 700 feet of altitude per minute.  This means in two minutes we can descend 1400 feet if we use the information supplied in the turn coordinator for a two-minute turn. The FTM suggests that we use this altitude plus 200 feet of “fudge factor” to plan our altitude, meaning that we should be at 1400 + 200 = 1600 feet above ground at our “high key” position.  Where I am flying, I am planning to be at the high key at 5600 feet.

This gives me about 400 feet to reach my high key position when I am flying at 6000 feet.

The low key position will be halfway around the turn, about a minute after entering the high key turn.  My altitude should be 800 feet above ground or around 4800 feet ASL on my altimeter.

A two-minute turn shown on the Turn coordinator. Image courtesy of wikipedia.org
A two-minute turn shown on the Turn coordinator. Image courtesy of wikipedia.org

A good trick is to pick a landmark where you estimate will be your low key position. Look to your left when you are starting your high key. Is there a landmark that is approximately 1.5 miles from your high key spot? You should aim to be over that spot in your low key, and this will give you an indication whether or not you are in the proper spot in your sequence.

Our “final key” will be around 500  feet.  Next we are at short final where we can decide if we are too high – and hopefully we are not too low!

Some things to note: be careful of the winds, these can affect your pattern and blow you off course.  Also if you think that you are way too high, do a turning slip to loose altitude before adding flaps. This will allow you to loose more altitude.  Remember, it is always better to be too high than too low. There are ways to loose altitude – such as a slip or using flaps – but there are no ways to gain it when we have no power. Also, the reason we turn left is because we are in the left seat we have better visibility of our landing spot on the left hand side.

The high key – low key landing procedure is only one way of planning the approach. It may sometimes be that we don’t need to do the key procedure, and can just do a series of turns to bleed off altitude, fly a “bow-tie” patten, or whatever system we think is best to get us on the intended landing spot safely. This means landing into the wind when possible, avoiding obstacles, and picking as smooth of a surface as possible.

This procedure is very difficult to do even when we are planning to do it in a simulation! I can imagine that when really loose engine power the situation becomes very real very fast, and coupled with the stress of knowing you have to put your plane in a field is very intense.  This is why practicing the procedure again and again is so important: your response is automatic and you know what steps you need to go through in a real engine-out emergency.

 

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A review of weather reports for pilots

Mountain wave cloud from the edge of the rocky mountains

Let’s review some basic concepts in meteorological reports for Pilots.

Cloud cover: measured in oktas, or out of eighths of the sky coverage:

  • SKC – sky clear of cloud
  • Few 1-2 out of 8
  • Scattered 3-4 out of 8
  • Broken 5-7 out of 8
  • Overcast 8 out of 8 – full sky coverage

METAR: Aviation routine weather reports are coded weather observations that are taken each hour at over 200 aerodromes and other locations in Canada.

SPECI: Special Weather Reports – these amend METAR observations, whenever weather conditions fluctuate or are below criteria.  What are these criteria?

  • Sky condition: (1) the cloud ceiling height changes either up or down from 1500 feet, 1000 feet, 500 feet, 300 feet or 100 feet, or to the published IFR limits for that aerodrome. Also, (2) the first occurrence of cloud under 1000 feet is noted.
  • Precipitation
  • Temperature: if above 20 degrees, an increase of 5 degrees; or if the temperature decreases to 2 degrees or colder.
  • Visibility: up or down any of these thresholds: 3 SM, 1.5 SM, 1 SM, 3/4 SM, 1/2 SM, or the limits for the aerodrome.
  • Wind: Wind doubles to exceed 30 knots, or shifts.
  • Severe weather: thunderstorm, tornado, funnel cloud.
  • Other: these can be incidents at the aerodrome, such as an accident or a special request from a weather forecast office, or if the weather observer feels it’s just to take initiative to issue this alert.

TAF: Terminal area forecast. Limited to aerodromes where METARS and SPECIs are published.  There are about 180 TAFs in Canada.  Generally prepared four times daily with up to 30 hour validity.

GFA: Graphical Area Forecast. There are seven GFA areas in Canada, these weather charts depict the most probable weather conditions expected to occour on the ground up to FL240 (flight level 24,000 feet).  There are six charts prepared for every period, issued daily at 2330, 0530, 1130 and 1730 UTC, valid from 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC respectively.   Each chart has 12 hours of forecasting plus a 12 hour IFR outook, giving us a total of 24 hours of forecasting.  Of the six GFAs listed for each forecast period, three contain cloud and weather information and three contain icing, turbulence and freezing levels.

The GFA can also be amended by AIRMETs or SIGMETs. AIRMETs are short term weather advisory for aircraft in flight, alerting pilots to possible hazardous flying conditions, but not severe enough to require a SIGMET.  SIGMETS  are short term warnings of certain potential hazardous weather phenomena, and are limited to more serious hazards which are important to all types of aircraft.

FDs – These provide upper level wind forecasts. They are provided for seven specific regions in Canada, and are further broken down for specific areas.  Forecast for the 3000, 6000, 9000, 12,000 and 18,000 foot levels are provided, and these are the low-level FDs. They are also given for flight levels above 18,000 feet (FL180).

Radar: Radar is provided on the Environment Canada webpage. It will show you developing precipitation. It is very accurate.

Satellite: Satellite is shown on the AWWS webpage, and is useful for long term weather forecasting and planning. You can use it to find low and high pressure systems. Recall that air rotates clockwise around a high and counterclockwise around a low.

PIREP: Pilot reports can be filed at any time. They should be regularly checked for your region. In fact, one that I received from a controller at Calgary terminal saved me from going into an area of severe turbulence.

A sample RVR for CYBW (Springbank)
A sample RVR for CYBW (Springbank)

RVR Index: Another great tool is the RVR index. The Runway Visual Range shows real time the current wind speed and direction at your chosen aerodrome. It is so accurate I often check it when I am already at the airport getting ready for a flight.  The image on the left it shows a sample of what you will see.  The wind speed and direction is displayed according to the magnetic compass.  Here the wind is blowing from 130 at 9 knots.  The wind direction is overlayed with the actual runways to get a sense of where exactly the wind is coming from, and if we can expect a crosswind.  In fact the cross wind component for each runway is calculated in a table next to the image.  Wind given is the average for each minute.

 

It is important to understand how to read these reports and understand how they are created.  After awhile, it becomes second nature.   Pilots after all, are lifetime students of weather.

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A student of weather

A student of weather.

Being a pilot means being a student of weather – all the time.

Weather is so fickle in Alberta that you quickly learn how much flying depends on it.

I did my ground school for my PPL a few years ago at Centennial Flight School in Edmonton City Centre airport.  After years of putting it off, I’m finally getting myself in gear to study for my ground school exam.  It’s harder once you’re done ground school and have had a long break from the theory in the lectures. And one of the most challenging topics is weather.  Things like instruments, aerodynamics, aircraft engines, navigation and air law, are more practicable, and used more often on a day to day basis. Many students struggle with weather theory the most.

Because I backcountry ski and climb, I feel like I already have a very close relationship with weather, specifically mountain weather. But in no other discipline will you have a more direct relationship with weather that you do when you fly.  It determines whether you can actually go up or not, and your safety while up in the air.  There is no ‘waiting out’ the weather once you make that decision to go up.

Weather determines whether or not we can fly VFR (with visual reference to the ground).   Fog will ground many of us.  Stay far away from thunderstorms, avoid icing and turbulence.  Mountain waves can be deadly. We need to know how wind shear affects aircraft performance.  Each airplane has a design limit for maximum cross wind – we need to be aware of these limits.

Air Command Weather Manual - by National Defense Canada
Air Command Weather Manual – by National Defense Canada

What are some of the best study aids for weather?

I want to share one of the most useful resources for studying weather I’ve recently discovered: the Air Command Manual which is published by National Defense Canada.  My instructor suggested I purchase it and I am really happy I did.  I find it very comprehensive and easy to follow: important sections are broken down into a series of lectures that can be easily referenced and reviewed.  In addition, an accompanying workbook can also be purchased in which you can test your knowledge in each specific area.  I find it a really great way to review and re-learn the specific weather topics. I have been using it every day since I got it, in preparation for the weather portion of my PPL written exam.

 

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), published by Transport Canada.
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), published by Transport Canada.

Transport Canada’s Aeronatical Information Manual (AIM) is also a very good source of weather information. It presents all of the weather products for aviation, in detail.  It tells us when the reports are published and for what areas, how long they are valid for and what all the various symbols and abbreviations are on the charts.  It is an invaluable study tool. This book is updated regularly and in fact, says on the cover when it is valid. For example, my old AIM book which is pictured was valid from October 22, 2009 to April 8, 2010. This book comes with your ground school kit when you sign up for ground school.

And of course,  the flying “bible”for Canadian pilots, “From the Ground Up” has a very good and detailed weather section, giving us the theory and application.  This also comes standard with your ground school kit.

These books can be referenced again and again, even once you are done your exams and have your license.  Certain areas, particularly when it comes to weather theory are easy to forget and these books exist so they can be easily referenced.  These books should be used regularly in your aviation career.

But of course, the best teacher is actually practical experience. Having all these resources is great but getting out and flying in all sorts of weather conditions, those we can manage of course, is indispensable.

Being a pilot means being a lifetime student of weather.

Review your weather reports!

Many different flight instruction books are available on Amazon

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Landing and departing at high altitude

El Alto International Airport, La Paz Bolivia. Image Courtesy of BolivaTravelSite.com

I read a post recently asking what is the highest altitude airport you have landed in. This reminded me when I flew into La Paz, Bolivia, landing at El Alto International Airport while on a backpacking trip in South America.  It was aboard a Lan Peru Airlines Airbus A319.   Though I wasn’t doing my pilot’s license back then, I was already very interested in flying, and did my research about this airport, knowing it was 4061 meters, or 13,325 feet above sea level.  If I wasn’t a climber that would have broken an altitude record for me just landing at an airport that high!

Cessna Citation XLS in Tibet, the world's highest commercial airport. Image courtesy of flightglobal.com
Cessna Citation XLS in Tibet, the world’s highest commercial airport. Image courtesy of flightglobal.com

The airport is one of the highest commercial airports in the world.  The runway 10R/28L at El Alto is 4 km (2.5 miles) long.  The only higher airport (that I could find) was Quam Banga Airport in Tibet, which is situated at an incredible 4334 meters – 14,219 feet above sea level! The runway there is an amazing 5.5 km (3.4 miles) long!

In order to land at El Alto, an aircraft must be equipped with special tires in order to be able to handle to high take off and landing speeds.  Only certain airlines provide service to this airport as the aircraft must be modified.

How else does high altitude affect airplanes? Well recall that the higher up we go, the lower the pressure.   Hence higher up the air becomes “thinner” and is less dense.  Denser air results in better aircraft performance.  In fact the four worst possible take-off and climb performance are when the following factors are combined:

1)  Air Temperature is high (above 15 degrees C)

2) Airport elevation is high

3) Atmospheric pressure is low (below 29.92 inches of Mercury)

4) Relative humidity is high.

So why the long runways at these airports? El Alto has a runway that is 4 km long. This is because due to the low pressure that exists at this extreme elevation there is reduced air resistance.  It is harder for the aircraft to slow down, and takes more time. The descent into this airport was noticeably short – the massive mountains looming on each side of the plane, and then before we knew it, the plane was close to the ground, which what felt like a disconcertingly high airspeed. It took a very long time to stop!

Since the highest altitudes on earth are mountainous, it is no surprise that these high altitude airports are surrounded by some pretty massive peaks. In Bolivia, among many other high mountains, Mount Illimani is in the area and looms over La Paz at 6438 meters (21,122 feet).  These mountains create obstacles that need to be cleared. Though they are far away, we learn obstacle clearance on take-off and landing for this reason.